Methodology
Carbon sequestration from HELCOM HOLAS 3 soft-bottom sediment model (g C/m²/yr). C→CO₂ conversion factor: 3.667. Bottom trawling effort: ICES/HELCOM, 2016–2021 annual average (kW·h). Carbon price: EU ETS. Confidence: moderate — values transfer damage costs from literature.
New research (Sala et al., 2026, Ocean & Coastal Management) estimates European bottom trawling disturbs 112M tonnes CO₂ annually.